English Metagraphic System throuhh History

There may, however, be a few exceptions.
There may be a few exceptions, however.
Naturally, that is not the whole story.
He did not speak to the President, naturally.
17. The comma is used in marking the beginning and end of a phrase that is inserted into the structure of a sentence:
London, according to Jack, is far too crowded.
18. It is normal at the end of a non-finite clause that begins a sentence:
Having been invited, I intend to stay.
Built in 1468, this castle was the scene of many battles.
Never at a loss for a word, Jackson held us all spell-bound.
19. The comma is usual at the end of an adverb phrase beginning a sentence:
In search of gold, my great-grandfather landed in America
(B) In Compound Sentences
1. Co-ordinate clauses, when expressed at full length, are generally separated by commas used between them before the conjunction:
The contract provided for prompt delivery of the goods, and the buyers immediately chartered а steamer for their transportation.
The buyers made a claim against the sellers, but the latter refused to admit it.
He was a gifted and experienced personality, and his iron nerves never failed him in an emergency.
Note. But when the two clauses are not expressed at full length, or are very closely allied, the comma is omitted:
It was a spring evening and the air was warm and fresh.
2. The comma is used between the clauses of a co-ordinate complex sentence when they are joined asyndetically (without any conjunction):
The wind blew, the clouds gathered, the rain fell.
I looked, I called, no one answered.
The birds sing their small hearts out, the band plays its gayest tunes, the white clouds race in the high blue heavens.
3. A comma is normal when a comment clause follows a main clause, and obligatory when a comment clause interrupts a main:
He was the first man to swim the Bosporus, I believe.
He was the first man, I believe, to swim the Bosporus.
The comma is equally usual in similar sentences:
(a) “He was really afraid, I believe.”, and
(b) “That he was really afraid, I can’t believe”,
which are syntactically different. In (a) He was really afraid is the main clause, and I believe is a comment clause. The intonation falls on afraid, and the comment clause is spoken on a flat and low-level pitch. In (b) the that-clause is the object of believe. The intonation rises on afraid; it normally reaches a high pitch on can’t and falls on believe.
(C) In Subordinate Clauses
Note. There is substantial difference in the use of the comma in English and Russian punctuation rules. In the Russian, the main clause is always separated from the subordinate one be means of a comma. In the English the clauses of a complex sentence are not separated by a comma in a number of cases.
1. The subject clause, the predicate clause, and the object clause are not separated by a comma:
– How this happened is not clear to anyone.
– The trouble is that I have lost his address.
– Не said that the steamer would arrive at the end of the week. Не asked how much they had paid for the goods.
2. The attributive clauses are usually separated by a comma when they are descriptive. Restrictive (individualizing and classifying) attributive clauses are not separated by a comma.
(a) A descriptive attributive clause is one, which describes a person or an object, or supplies additional information. It is separated from the principal clause of the complex sentence by a comma:
We have received a letter, which contains interesting information on the situation of the wheat market.
The manager of our office, who is a highly educated man, speaks several foreign languages.
I met some children, who showed me the way to the station.
(b) A classifying attributive clause indicates that a person or object belongs to some class of persons or objects. Such clauses are not separated from the principal clause of the complex sentence by a comma:
A letter which is written in pencil is difficult to read.
Vessels which are used for the transportation of oil are called tankers.
(c) An individualizing attributive clause provides an indication of an individual feature of a person or of an object which is attributed solely to the particular person or object and differs the person (object) from other persons (objects) of the same class of persons or objects:
The children who live in that house are my son’s friends.
The vessels which arrived at the port yesterday were built in Russia.
The letter that I received from him yesterday is very important.
3. As a general rule the comma is used to separate a subordinate clause from the main clause when it is long or when it is out of its usual order (i. e., when it precedes the main clause):
Long before we saw the sea, its spray was on our lips, and showered salt rain upon us.
When the day broke, it blew harder and harder.
If you have not settled it by the time I see you, I'll tell you what to do.
But:
The morning sun was streaming through the crevices of the canvas when the man awoke.
Rooks rose from the stables as if in surprise at the sound of horses' hoofs.
4. An attributive clause is not separated from the main clause when it is a restrictive (defining) clause; a comma is used when it is a descriptive clause:
(a) The wind swept in furious gusts down the narrow road and howled dismally through the trees which skirted the pathway.
The howl and roar, the rattling of the doors and windows, the rumbling of the chimneys, the apparent rocking of the very house that sheltered me, and the prodigious tumult of the sea were more fearful than in the morning.
(b) The well, which had long ago fallen into disuse, was almost hidden by the thick tangle of undergrowth.
He was a tall, handsome youth, who looked like a sailor.
Note. The relative pronoun that, being usually restrictive, is rarely preceded by a comma:
The sea was getting rougher with every wave that broke along the rocky beach.
It became alive and spoke with a multitude of different yells that inspired the listeners with horror.
5. An attributive clause placed alongside the principal clause without any connective word is not separated by a comma:
The man they had passed looked after them in rather an enquiring fashion.
6. A comma is often used to separate direct speech from expressions of explanation:
“You are a thoroughly good fellow, and deserve to be as happy as you are to-night,” he said.
7. Useful in making the distinction between a purpose clause and a result clause:
We turned up the radio so that everyone could hear (purpose)
We turned up the radio, so that everyone could hear (result)
Note. Unless there is an interruption in the clause no comma or any other punctuation mark must separate the verb and its object, whether the object is a noun phrase, a finite (that- or which-) clause, or a non-finite clause:
He told me that he knew exactly what to do.
He told me where he was going.
III. The Semicolon (;)
It is used:
1. Between the clauses of a compound sentence in the absence of coordinative conjunctions:
The signal was given; the steamer moved slowly from the dock.
Не will return from London in June; his sister will stay there another month.
2. When a greater pause is required than is indicated by a comma:
Six o'clock came; the factory motors were shut off, and died away with a last lingering sound.
The moon went down; the stars grew pale; the cold day broke; the sun rose.
3. To give greater emphasis to different clauses:
As Сaesаг loved me, I weep for him; as he was fortunate, I rejoice at it; as he was valiant, I honour him; but, as he was ambitious, I slew him. (Shakespeare.)
In other words, the semicolon separates an additional clause from the rest of the sentence to which it belongs:
Soon, indeed, it will be only by their situations that cities can be distinguished; but therein this city is unrivalled.
A semicolon, rather than a comma, makes that sentence easier to read: it indicates that, whereas the that-clause is dependent on the main, the but-clause is not.
The semicolon is usual in marking off each of a succession of dependent clauses, finite or non-finite, which are all dependent on an initial main clause:
The Committee therefore agreed(:) that Mr. Abbott be invited to attend the next meeting; that, in the meantime, no action should be taken on the basis of his report; and that a more detailed estimate should be prepared.
You are kindly requested(:) to complete the enclosed form; to post it at once in the envelope provided; and to notify this office at once of any change in your address.
IV. The Colon (:)
The colon may be used at the writer's discretion, if he thinks that the pause is not sufficiently marked by a semicolon. On this point no fixed rules can be given.
The colon generally is used:
1. To introduce an additional remark in explanation or in confirmation of a previous one:
His hatred for dogs is very well grounded: he was bitten by one when he was a child.
2. To introduce a quotation:
He took the letter and began to read aloud: "I have to inform you of a great change in my life." He stopped and looked up at us significantly.
Не said: "We agree to accept your offer provided the rate of freight is reduced to eighteen shillings."
The CEO (chief executive officer) declared: "The decision will be taken before the 13th of February".
Note. In case of a shorter text the colon may be replaced by a comma before the quotation:
Не said, “Wait for me."
Не asked me, “Are you cold?"
3. To recapitulate a series of coordinated clauses. Here the colon is followed by a dash:
The storm had passed; the sun was shining on the green leaves of the trees; the streams were dancing around the rocks; the birds hopped about him as they chirped their cheerful notes: - such were the pleasant scenes and sounds that welcomed the wanderer back to his home.
4. Before enumerations:
The play began. It depicted the rising in the Tyrol in 1809: the village life, dances and yodeling; murmurings and exhortations, the warning beat of drums, then the gathering, with flintlocks, pitchforks, knives; the battle and victory, the home-coming, and festival.
The colon is usual after such summarizing and generalizing words as “the following”, “namely”, “for example”, “as follows”, etc:
The agreement provides for the delivery of the following raw materials: cotton, wool, jute, and others.
5. After an introductory clause or phrase:
The Committee therefore agreed(:) that Mr. Abbott be invited to attend the next meeting; that, in the meantime, no action should be taken on the basis of his report; and that a more detailed estimate should be prepared.
You are kindly requested(:) to complete the enclosed form; to post it at once in the envelope provided; and to notify this office at once of any change in your address.
6. Serves to separate two finite clauses, when the second provides an explanation, expansion or modification of what is said in the first and when there is no subordinating conjunction linking the two:
Soon, indeed, it will be only by their situations that cities can be distinguished: but therein this city is unrivalled (“distinguished” and “unrivalled” are contrasted to each other).
We must sell this property: maintenance costs are far too high.
V. The Note of Interrogation (?)
1. The note of interrogation is used after direct questions:
"Do you recollect the voice, dear Caleb?"
"Did you ever hear the like of it before?" cried Dot.
Well, what do you want me to say?
You don't mind, do you?
After an indirect question, i. e., a question in an indirect speech in the form of an additional clause, a full stop (period) (.) is used:
Не asked where his red pencil was.
She asked him how old he was.
2. But, if the main clause of the sentence is interrogative, a note of interrogation is used at the end of an indirect question:
Did you ask him at what time the train leaves?
Do you know when he will come?
VI. The Note of Exclamation (!)
1. The note of exclamation is used after words or sentences which express emotion.:
"They are wheels indeed!" she panted. "Coming nearer! Nearer! Ever closer! And now you hear them stopping at the garden gate! And now you hear a step outside the door - the same step, Bertha, is it not!"
How glad I am to see you!
What a fine building!
What wonderful weather (we are having)!
What a beautiful day (it is)!
How beautiful (it is)!
How interesting (this is)!
2. It is usual after exclamations and after vigorous commands.
Get down!
Take cover!
3. The note of exclamation is often used in intimate correspondence, especially in a feminine style.
Guess what!
Sue's married!
VII. The quotation marks (Inverted Commas) (“…” ‘… ‘ «…»)
1. Inverted commas (paired punctuation marks) are used to mark the beginning and end of a quotation:
The guard says, “The road is closed.”
"Those were his exact words," she said and repeated them with closed eyes, as if trying to revive the whole scene in her memory: "If I do not return, you have to look for the papers in the left-hand drawer, second from the top ..."
Notes. a. The guard says, – in such sentences it is called a comment clause. Similarly: He was really afraid, I believe. Cf. That George was frightened, I agree. Here “I agree” is the main clause, and “That George was frightened” is the object clause of the entire complex sentence.
b. Either single (‘…’) or double (“…”) quotation marks are obligatory at the beginning and end of direct speech. Note the use of the comma (replaceable by a colon) before the quotation begins, and the use of a comma before a reporting phrase that follows the quotation:
The guard shouted, 'The road is closed'. or
“The road is closed,” the guard shouted.
c. Reporting phrase – reported statement or indirect phrase:
The guard says (tells me) (that) the road is closed) as contrasted to a direct speech (The guard says, ‘The road is closed’).
d. Two sets of inverted commas may occur.
I heard that man say, “The guard shouted ‘The road's closed’”.
Leech speaks of ‘five types of “future tense”’.
2. They separate a direct speech, names (titles) of works of art and literature, newspapers, magazines, journals, etc.
3. Two Inverted commas are often used to indicate that a word (an expression) is being used in a special, not generally accepted, sense.
Would you call to be going to and to be to “future tenses”? In the Russian they are widely used to express a word or an expression in an ironical and sarcastic sense.
VIII. The Dash ( – )(a horizontal line with blanks on both sides; slightly longer than a hyphen)
The dash is used:
1. To mark a break or an abrupt turn in a sentence:
"And all this long story was about – what do you think?"
"And Richard says, father" – Meg resumed, then stopped. "What does Richard say, Meg?" asked Toby. "Richard says, father – another stoppage.”
2. When the subject of a sentence is of such length, or of such complexity, that its connection with the verb might easily be lost sight of, it is sometimes summed up by some short expression. In such a case a dash follows the subject:
Mrs. Peerybingle, going out into the raw twilight, and clicking over the wet stones in a pair of pattens that worked innumerable rough impressions of the first proposition in Euclid all about the yard – Mrs. Peerybingle filled the kettle at the water-butt.
3. To mark a faltering or hesitating speech:
“I – I – I – know you have a quick ear,” said Dot, placing her hand upon her heart and evidently talking on, as fast as she could, to hide its palpitating state.
4. The dash is sometimes used instead of brackets before and after a parenthesis:
The pipe lay in the usual place – the carrier's dreadnought pocket – with the little pouch, her own work, from which she was used to fill it.
5. Dashes could replace the commas before and after the kind of interruption. Cf. London, according to Jack, is too far crowded.
London – according to Jack – is too far crowded.
IX. The Hyphen (-)
The hyphen (shorter than a dash) is used:
1. To join the parts of a compound word: reading-room; Commander-in-chief; coal-pit; dark-blue; South-West; printing-press; now-a-days; man-of-war; wage-cuts.
2. To divide a word (into syllables) at the end of a line: numer-al; investi-gated, or investigat-ed; col-lective; re-cognize; sub-ject.
X. Brackets (parentheses) (…….)
Brackets (usually in plural, either or both of the curved lines) are used to insert (to mark off, to enclose) a word, a piece of relevant information, a mathematical quantity, a name, a parenthetic sentence, etc. in the middle of a main sentence:
Awake (not Greece – she is awake), awake my spirit! (Вуrоn.)
XI. The Apostrophe (’)
The apostrophe is used:
1. To show that some letter or letters have been omitted (in the contracted forms): it's = it is; isn't = is not; don't = do not; haven't = have not; shouldn't = should not; needn't = need not; daren't = dare not; used to = use(d)n't [ju:snt]to, etc.;
How's baby, mum?
Boxer's pretty well, I hope?
I'll take you home.
He hasn't been here, has he?
Ah! who'd have thought it.
Notes. a. The informal didn’t use to is commonly heard instead of use(d)n't to.
b. The contracted form with “have” is common when it is an auxiliary verb (He’s been away), but must be avoided when it is full verb (He has a gun).
2. To show the possessive (Genitive) form:
The student's dictionary.
The students' dictionaries John's name.
The Johns' house.
The boys' caps.
Somebody (else)'s opinion.
A cat's tail.
A dog's bark.
An elephant's trunk.
“The boy's cap” and “The boys' caps” are examples of Genitive singular and plural.
XII. The Suspension Point (Three Dots) (…)
It is any of a series of dots, properly three, indicating the omission of words or sentences, as in something quoted. These three points are normally referred to as suspension points.
XIII. The Use of Capital letters
Capital letters are obligatory at the beginning of:
1) the first word of a sentence;
2) personal names: Mr. (Mr) George Lamb;
3) the names of roads, streets, towns, villages, countries, etc. and geographical features: North Road, High Street, Boston, Japan, Mount Everest, Lake Ontario, the Pacific Ocean;
4) astronomical names, such as Jupiter, the Milky way, Galaxy, etc.;
5) names of the days of the week, months, special festivals: Monday, March, Christmas, Easter;
6) nouns and adjectives referring to nationality: He is French, two Frenchmen, They have French passports;
7) names of languages: Do you speak English?
8) names of institutions: the British Museum, the United Nations;
9) names of works of literature, art: The Mona Liza, Gone with the Wind;
10) A capital letter is normal as the first letter of every notional word of a headline of newspaper articles, all kinds of publications, etc.;
11) The first person singular, I, is always spelt with a capital.;
12) A capital letter is normal at the beginning of a title referring to a particular person. Compare these two sentences:
A republic usually elects a president.
John Roberts, President of the Union, will address the assembly;
13) Words like committee, government, school, union, university, etc. are normally spelt with a capital when they refer to a particular institution. Compare these two sentences:
A committee is a group of persons elected or appointed to undertake certain duties;
The (Executive) Committee will meet again on May 10th. (Close, 1979)

2.4. The Other Punctuation Marks
There a number of other characters, most of which are not properly punctuation marks at all, and very few of which are normally used in formal writing, except in certain specialist disciplines. Here are the ones which are found most commonly, or which can be produced with a word processor; such special symbols are often informally called dingbats:
%
the per cent sign
$
the dollar sign
£
the pound sign
¢
the cent sign
#
the hash mark (in computer parlance, the `pound sign')
*
the asterisk (in the US, informally called a `bug')
@
the at sign
&
the ampersand, or and sign
¶
the paragraph mark, or blind, or pilcrow
§
the section mark
^
the caret
~
the swung dash (informally called the `twiddle' or `tilde')
_
the underbar
<
the less-than sign
>
the greater-than sign
< >
angle brackets
{ }
braces (also called curly brackets)
« »
guillemets (French quotation marks)
» «
reversed guillemets (German quotation marks)
+
the plus sign
±
the plus-or-minus sign
=
the equal sign
\
the backslash
|
the pipe
One will undoubtedly be familiar with the use of the per cent sign, the dollar sign and the pound sign:
Over 40% of Australia is desert.
The USA bought Alaska for only $3 million.
This word processor costs £1800.
Note that we write £42.50, and not *£42.50p, and similarly for other currencies.
Most computer keyboards lack the pound sign, but it can usually be produced in one way or another. If one absolutely can't produce a pound sign, it has become conventional in computing circles to use the hash mark instead (hence its other name):
This word processor costs #1800.
In American English, the hash mark is used informally to represent the word `number' before a numeral, as in look for # 27 (A). This is not usual in British English, and it is out of place in formal writing.
The asterisk is occasionally used to mark footnotes. It also has one other rather curious use: it is sometimes used to replace a letter in writing a word which is felt to be too coarse to be written out in full, as in f**k. This is a usage mostly found in newspapers and magazines, in which writers are often careful to avoid offending their very broad readership. In most other types of writing, such words are normally written out in full if they are used at all. (Compare the somewhat similar use of the dash.)
A bullet may be used to mark each item in an enumeration if numbering of the items is not thought to be necessary; look at the summaries at the ends of most of the earlier sections of this document.
The at sign is chiefly confined to business documents, in which it stands for `at a price of ... each':
200 shower units @ £42.50
It is also used in electronic mail addresses to separate a username from the rest of the address:
larryt@cogs.susx.ac.uk
The ampersand represents the word `and' in the names of certain companies and legal firms, as in the name Barton & Maxwell, Solicitors. Except when citing such a name, one should never use an ampersand in place of `and' in formal writing, nor should one use a plus sign for this purpose. The word `and' is always written out.
The paragraph mark and the section mark are occasionally used to represent the words `paragraph' and `section' when referring to some part of a work: in ¶ 2, in § 3.1. They are only appropriate when brevity is important, such as in footnotes; in the text, one should write these words out: in paragraph two, in section 3.1.
The remaining symbols in the list have various particular uses in specialist disciplines, and sometimes in dictionaries, but they have no function in ordinary writing (Robinson, 1988: 98–102).
2.5. Priority Among Punctuation Marks
Punctuation marks are, in most cases, independent of one another. Each mark is inserted to do a particular job, and using one mark neither allows to drop another one which is independently required nor permits to insert one or two extra marks which are not needed. There are, however, a few exceptions.
First of all, we never write two full stops at the end of a sentence. Observe the following examples:
According to tradition, Rome was founded in 753 b.c.
Leo Durocher never in fact made that famous remark "Nice guys finish last."
The abbreviation and the direct quotation already end in full stops, so no second full stop is written. Similarly, if a sentence would logically end in two question marks, only the first is written:
Who wrote the sonnet that begins "How do I love thee?"
If a sentence-final quotation ends in a question mark or an exclamation mark, no full stop follows:
Pontius Pilate famously asked "What is truth?"
However, a question mark is written after a full stop if this is logically required:
Are there any Latin texts earlier than 500 b.c.?
The second of two bracketing commas or dashes is not written at the end of a sentence. This is because the comma or dash that would logically appear there is "outranked" by the full stop or other mark that appears at the end of the sentence:
The Spaniards and the Canadians are close to war over fishing rights, it would appear.
We commonly assume that there are only two sexes ‹ but could we be wrong?
In the same way, a comma that should logically appear is suppressed if a colon or a semicolon is present at the same position:
The planet Venus is a hellhole, as the Russian probes have revealed; no human could survive for a moment on its surface.
Only two groups are excluded from the French Foreign Legion, according to the rules: women and Frenchmen.
In these examples the second bracketing commas that would logically appear after the words revealed and rules are suppressed by the following colon and semicolon. Here is a useful rule of thumb: a comma is never preceded or followed by any other punctuation mark at all, except possibly by a quotation mark or by a full stop which forms part of an abbreviation (McCorkle, 1962: 674–680).


Conclusion
Punctuation marks are the Analphabetic symbols that structure typographically written and printing text. They regulate the reading tempo by marking the intonations, the logical pauses, and the divisions between words and sentences. Some of them are marks of the end of a sentence (Period, Question mark, Exclamation mark, Ellipsis) and others used in the middle of a sentence (Comma, Colon, Semicolon, Dashes, ellipsis). Also there are double punctuation marks used for emphasis of words or phrases (Parantheses, Brackets, Quotes, etc.). Its usage may be different in other languages or they may have different meaning. In each language there are punctuation rules determine its usage.
Consistency in the author's or editor's subjective decisions is vital to a well-punctuated report.
Historically or typologically different systems of punctuation are mainly distinguished by the comma. It is also the only sign that is constrained by rather complex punctuation rules.
Punctuation is an art, not a science, and a sentence can often be punctuated correctly in more than one way. It may also vary according to style: formal academic prose, for instance, might make more use of colons, semicolons, and brackets and less of full stops, commas, and dashes than conversational or journalistic prose.
In earlier periods of English, punctuation was often used rhetorically - that is, to represent the rhythms of the speaking voice. The main function of modern English punctuation, however, is logical: it is used to make clear the grammatical structure of the sentence, linking or separating groups of ideas and distinguishing what is important in the sentence from what is subordinate. It can also be used to break up a long sentence into more manageable units, but this may only be done where a logical break occurs.
The modern tendency is to punctuate to prevent misreading (open style) rather than to use all punctuation that the grammatical structure will allow (close style). Although the open style results in a more inviting product, it does allow subjectivity, perhaps arbitrariness, in the use of some marks, for example, the comma and hyphen.


















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